# Dating of earth

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Uniformitarian geologists assume the slow rate of deposition as observed today for the past. Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity.\
&#x20;![dating of earth](http://slideplayer.com/1588662/5/images/11/Radiometric+Dating.jpg)\\

In order to actually do the si, other things need to dating of earth known. The most abundant on Earth's surface include, and. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions. In addition to the radiocarbon dating technique, scientists have developed other dating methods based on the transformation of one element into another. Sample 72417 was one of five custodes from this half-meter boulder in found at Station 2 at the base of South Massif. But, carbon dating can't be used to date either rocks or fossils. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years. When the Flood is taken into account along with the idea of the magnetic field, it is reasonable to believe that the assumption of equilibrium is a false assumption. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples dating of earth 410 million to 2. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric jesus by suggesting that the released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as atoms. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than custodes the northern over the course of a year.

Al principio no le cae bien Hyun Jin, porque quiere involucrarse en sus problemas, sin embargo se vuelve importante para él, por otro lado Jaejoong y Yoochun se llevan muy mal y varias veces se encuentran a punto de pelear. Back to , , or. Note that, contrary to a popular misconception, carbon dating is not used to date rocks at millions of years old.\
&#x20;![dating of earth](http://image.slidesharecdn.com/earthsciencechapter3-3-101209125150-phpapp02/95/earth-science-33-absolute-dating-a-measure-of-time-3-728.jpg?cb=1291899172)\\

**Enjoying EarthSky? Subscribe.** - Late Proterozoic low-latitude global glaciation: the Snowball Earth. The land-based depends upon and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.\
&#x20;![dating of earth](https://i.pinimg.com/originals/eb/ce/32/ebce329e68cda416a93ef8c314a6fdc5.jpg)\\

Tim Thompson has collected a large set of links to web pages that discuss radiometric dating techniques and the age of the earth controversy. This value is derived from several different lines of evidence. Unfortunately, the age cannot be computed directly from material that is solely from the Earth. There is evidence that energy from the Earth's accumulation caused the surface to be molten. Further, the processes of erosion and crustal recycling have apparently destroyed all of the earliest surface. The oldest rocks which have been found so far on the Earth date to about 3. Some of these rocks are sedimentary, and include minerals which are themselves as old as 4. Rocks of this age are relatively rare, however rocks that are at least 3. While these values do not compute an age for the Earth, they do establish a lower limit the Earth must be at least as old as any formation on it. This lower limit is at least concordant with the independently derived figure of 4. This involves measurement of three isotopes of lead Pb-206, Pb-207, and either Pb-208 or Pb-204. If the solar system formed from a common pool of matter, which was uniformly distributed in terms of Pb isotope ratios, then the initial plots for all objects from that pool of matter would fall on a single point. Over time, the amounts of Pb-206 and Pb-207 will change in some samples, as these isotopes are decay end-products of uranium decay U-238 decays to Pb-206, and U-235 decays to Pb-207. This causes the data points to separate from each other. If the source of the solar system was also uniformly distributed with respect to uranium isotope ratios, then the data points will always fall on a single line. And from the slope of the line we can compute the amount of time which has passed since the pool of matter became separated into individual objects. See the or for technical detail. However, the test for these assumptions is the plot of the data itself. The actual underlying assumption is that, if those requirements have not been met, there is no reason for the data points to fall on a line. The resulting plot has data points for each of five meteorites that contain varying levels of uranium, a single data point for all meteorites that do not, and one solid circle data point for modern terrestrial sediments. It looks like this: Pb-Pb isochron of terrestrial and meteorite samples. Most of the other measurements for the age of the Earth rest upon calculating an age for the solar system by dating objects which are expected to have formed with the planets but are not geologically active and therefore cannot erase evidence of their formation , such as meteorites. Below is a table of radiometric ages derived from groups of meteorites: Type Number Dated Method Age billions of years Chondrites CM, CV, H, L, LL, E 13 Sm-Nd 4. Severin 8 Re-Os 4. As shown in the table, there is excellent agreement on about 4. Note that young-Earthers cannot accuse us of selective use of data -- the above table includes a significant fraction of all meteorites on which isotope dating has been attempted. According to , less than 100 meteorites have been subjected to isotope dating, and of those about 70 yield ages with low analytical error. Further, the oldest age determinations of individual meteorites generally give concordant ages by multiple radiometric means, or multiple tests across different samples. For example: Meteorite Dated Method Age billions of years Allende whole rock Ar-Ar 4. Those which appear the most frequently in talk. The young-Earth argument goes something like this: helium-4 is created by radioactive decay alpha particles are helium nuclei and is constantly added to the atmosphere. Helium is not light enough to escape the Earth's gravity unlike hydrogen , and it will therefore accumulate over time. The current level of helium in the atmosphere would accumulate in less than two hundred thousand years, therefore the Earth is young. I believe this argument was originally put forth by Mormon young-Earther Melvin Cook, in a letter to the editor which was published in Nature. But helium can and does escape from the atmosphere, at rates calculated to be nearly identical to rates of production. In order to obtain a young age from their calculations, young-Earthers handwave away mechanisms by which helium can escape. Calculations for 3He lead to similar results, i. Another possible escape mechanism is direct interaction of the solar wind with the upper atmosphere during the short periods of lower magnetic-field intensity while the field is reversing. Sheldon and Kern 112 estimated that 20 geomagnetic-field reversals over the past 3. This argument also appears in the following creationist literature: The young-Earth argument: the dipole component of the magnetic field has decreased slightly over the time that it has been measured. An exponential fit assuming a half-life of 1400 years on 130 years' worth of measurements yields an impossibly high magnetic field even 8000 years ago, therefore the Earth must be young. The main proponent of this argument was Thomas Barnes. It's hard to just list them all. If it is possible for energy to be added to the field, then the extrapolation is useless. Even some young-Earthers admit to that these days -- e. This means that the extrapolation rests on the assumption that fluctuations in the observable portion of the field accurately represent fluctuations in its total energy. Even if we grant that it is permissible to ignore portions of the field that are internal to the core, Barnes' extrapolation also ignores portions of the field which are visible and instead rests on extrapolation of a theoretical entity. That last part is more important than it may sound. The Earth's magnetic field is often split in two components when measured. A study in the 1960s showed that the decrease in the dipole component since the turn of the century had been nearly completely compensated by an increase in the strength of the nondipole components of the field. In other words, the measurements show that the field has been diverging from the shape that would be expected of a theoretical ideal magnet, more than the amount of energy has actually been changing. Barnes' extrapolation therefore does not really rest on the change in energy of the field. For information, see or. This argument also appears in the following creationist literature: The most common form of this young-Earth argument is based on a single measurement of the rate of meteoritic dust influx to the Earth gave a value in the millions of tons per year. While this is negligible compared to the processes of erosion on the Earth about a shoebox-full of dust per acre per year , there are no such processes on the Moon. Young-Earthers claim that the Moon must receive a similar amount of dust perhaps 25% as much per unit surface area due to its lesser gravity , and there should be a very large dust layer about a hundred feet thick if the Moon is several billion years old. He measured the amount of nickel collected, and published calculations based on the assumption that all nickel that he collected was meteoritic in origin. That assumption was wrong and caused his published figures to be a vast overestimate. Pettersson's calculation resulted in the a figure of about 15 million tons per year. Several measurements of higher precision were available from many sources by the time Morris wrote Scientific Creationism. These measurements give the value for influx rate to the Earth of about 20,000 to 40,000 tons per year. Multiple measurements chemical signature of ocean sediments, satellite penetration detectors, microcratering rate of objects left exposed on the lunar surface all agree on approximately the same value -- nearly three orders of magnitude lower than the value which Morris chose to use. With the proper values, the expected depth of meteoritic dust on the Moon is less than one foot. For further information, see or. Some folks in talk. The lunar soil is a very thin layer usually an inch or less of loose powder present on the surface of the Moon. However, the lunar soil is not the only meteoritic material on the lunar surface. Below it is the regolith, which is a mixture of rock fragments and packed powdery material. The regolith averages about five meters deep on the lunar maria and ten meters on the lunar highlands. In addition, lunar rocks are broken down by various processes such as micrometeorite impacts and radiation. Quite a bit of the powdered material even the loose portion is not meteoritic in origin. There is a recent creationist technical paper on this topic which admits that the depth of dust on the Moon is concordant with the mainstream age and history of the solar system. Unfortunately, attempted counter-responses by creationists have so far failed because of spurious arguments or faulty calculations. Thus, until new evidence is forthcoming, creationists should not continue to use the dust on the moon as evidence against an old age for the moon and the solar system. The Apollo mission had been preceded by several unmanned landings -- the Soviet Luna six landers , American Ranger five landers and Surveyor seven landers series. The physical properties of the lunar surface were well-known years before man set foot on it. Further, even prior to the unmanned landings mentioned above, Snelling and Rush document that there was no clear consensus in the astronomical community on the depth of dust to expect. So those making the argument do not even have the excuse that such an consensus existed prior to the unmanned landings. This calculation was performed by dividing the amount of various metals in the oceans by the rate at which rivers bring the metals into the oceans. Some of the chemistry of the ocean floor is not well-understood, which unfortunately leaves a fairly large uncertainty. One cannot derive a date from a process where equilibrium is within the range of uncertainty -- it could go on forever without changing concentration of the ocean. I have seen a similar calculation on uranium, failing to note that the uncertainty in the efflux estimate is larger than its distance from equilibrium. To calculate a true upper limit, we must calculate the maximum upper limit, using all values at the appropriate extreme of their measurement uncertainty. We must perform the calculations on the highest possible efflux rate, and the lowest possible influx rate. If equilibrium is within reach of those values, no upper limit on age can be derived. Ignoring the three problems above, the results are scattered randomly five are under 1,000 years; five are 1,000-9,999 years; five are 10,000-99,999 years; six are 100,000-999,999 years; and six are 1,000,000 years or above. Also, the only two results that agree are 350 years, and Aluminum gives 100 years. Nobody in the debate would agree on a 100-year-old Earth. Independent confirmation is very important for dating methods -- scientists generally do not place much confidence in a date that is only computed from a single measurement. There is no reason to believe that influx rates have been constant throughout time. There is reason to expect that, due to a relatively large amount of exposed land, today's erosion and therefore influx rates are higher than typical past rates. There is no way to tell if the calculated result is good or not. The best methods used by geologists to perform dating have a built-in check which identifies undatable samples. One might wonder why creationist authors have found it worthy of publishing. Yet, it is quite common. They appear in talk. They are all built upon a distortion of the data. If I applied the same standards to the fairly large collection of creationist materials that I own, none would remain. Most creationist criticisms of radiometric dating can be categorized into a few groups. This is perhaps the most common objection of all. Creationists point to instances where a given method produced a result that is clearly wrong, and then argue that therefore all such dates may be ignored. The fact that one wristwatch has failed to keep time properly cannot be used as a justification for discarding all watches. How many creationists would see the same time on five different clocks and then feel free to ignore it? Yet, when five radiometric dating methods agree on the age of one of the Earth's oldest rock formations , it is dismissed without a thought. Certain requirements are involved with all radiometric dating methods. These generally include constancy of decay rate and lack of contamination gain or loss of parent or daughter isotope. The nucleus is well-insulated and therefore is relatively immune to larger-scale effects such as pressure or temperature. Significant changes to rates of radiometric decay of isotopes relevant to geological dating have never been observed under any conditions. Note that the largest changes reported by Emery are both irrelevant they do not involve isotopes or modes of decay used for this FAQ , and minuscule decay rate changed by of order 1% compared to the change needed to compress the apparent age of the Earth into the young-Earthers' timescale. You will find a simple explanation in any elementary quantum mechanics textbook; for example, Ohanion's Principles of Quantum Mechanics has a nice example of alpha decay on page 89. The fact that the process is probabilistic, and the exponential dependence on time, are straightforward consequences of quantum mechanics. An exact computation of decay rates is, of course, much more complicated, since it requires a detailed understanding of the shape of the potential barrier. In principle, this is computable from quantum chromodynamics, but in practice the computation is much too complex to be done in the near future. There are, however, reliable approximations available, and in addition the shape of the potential can be measured experimentally. For beta decay, the underlying fundamental theory is different; one begins with electroweak theory for which Glashow, Weinberg and Salam won their Nobel prize rather than quantum chromodynamics. As described above, the process of radioactive decay is predicated on rather fundamental properties of matter. In order to explain old isotopic ages on a young Earth by means of accelerated decay, an increase of six to ten orders of magnitude in rates of decay would be needed depending on whether the acceleration was spread out over the entire pre-Flood period, or accomplished entirely during the Flood. Such a huge change in fundamental properties would have plenty of noticeable effects on processes other than radioactive decay taken from by Steve Carlip : So there has been a lot of creative work on how to look for evidence of such changes. A nice technical summary is given by. While it is not obvious, each of these observations is sensitive to changes in the physical constants that control radioactive decay. For example, a change in the strength of weak interactions which govern beta decay would have different effects on the binding energy, and therefore the gravitational attraction, of different elements. Similarly, such changes in binding energy would affect orbital motion, while more directly changes in interaction strengths would affect the spectra we observe in distant stars. The observations are a mixture of very sensitive laboratory tests, which do not go very far back in time but are able to detect extremely small changes, and astronomical observations, which are somewhat less precise but which look back in time. Remember that processes we observe in a star a million light years away are telling us about physics a million years ago. While any single observation is subject to debate about methodology, the combined results of such a large number of independent tests are hard to argue with. The overall result is that no one has found any evidence of changes in fundamental constants, to an accuracy of about one part in 10 11 per year. To summarize: both experimental evidence and theoretical considerations preclude significant changes to rates of radioactive decay. The limits placed are somewhere between ten and twenty orders of magnitude below the changes which would be necessary to accommodate the apparent age of the Earth within the young-Earth timescale by means of accelerated decay. It is true that some dating methods e. For this reason, the results of such dating methods are not treated with as much confidence. Also, similarly to item 1 above, pleas to contamination do not address the fact that radiometric results are nearly always in agreement with old-Earth expectations. An excellent, detailed exposition of the means by which the Earth's age is known, as well as the history of attempts to estimate that value, is given in. This book is a must-read for anyone who wishes to critique mainstream methods for dating the Earth. In my opinion, the defense of such a position is a losing battle. Brown believes life on Earth and the geological column to be young, but argues that a proper reading of Genesis allows the Earth itself to be much older. The best in my opinion is. In addition, , , and are also good. ISBN 0-8047-1569-6 Back to meteorites or or. Back to , , or. ISBN 0-471-86412-9 Back to , or. Back to , , or. Morris, Henry, and Gary Parker, 1987. ISBN 0-89051-081-4 Back to. ISBN 0-89051-001-6 Back to , , , or. ISBN 0-87975-414-1 Back to , , or. ISBN 0-87552-338-2 Back to or. ISBN 0-944788-00-9 Back to. ISBN 0-918112-01-X Back to , , , or. ISBN 0-934666-27-X Back to.
